Radiant energy imager using null switching

ABSTRACT

In some aspects, the present invention embodies both the method and apparatus for converting a pattern of irradiation to a visible image. An embodiment of the present invention provides an array of micro-electro-mechanical sensors with each sensor includes a deflectable micro-cantilever, responsive to absorbed incident radiation and to an applied repulsive electrostatic field. In an aspect, the sensor device also includes a null-sensing circuit coupled to a switch contact on or near the substrate, which senses when the micro-cantilever reaches its null location, by electrical connection with an upper switch contact on the micro-cantilever. Other embodiments are also described.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates to radiant energy imaging sensors, and, inparticular to such methods, systems, apparatus and devices for sensorsas employ a micro-cantilever as a responsive element.

BACKGROUND AND PRIOR ART

A variety of prior art irradiance sensors is currently available in theelectronics industry. Techniques for converting radiation to visibleimages are also known in which the absorbed radiant energy is convertedto heat to change a measurable property of a sensing element, such asthe resistance of a resistor or the position of a bi-materialcantilever. The sensed radiation includes ultraviolet, visible,infra-red, or terahertz irradiation, depending on the spectralabsorption of the sensor element.

An example of a prior art radiation sensor is the deflectablemicro-electromechanical (MEM) cantilever bi-material device formed of abi-material, anchored on an insulating substrate. The bi-materialportion of the micro-cantilever device is formed of two differentmaterials sharing a common surface and having different coefficients ofthermal expansion (CTE). Examples of bi-material MEM micro-cantileverdevices and methods for forming the same are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No.5,844,238 issued to Sauer et al. and U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,140,646 and6,420,706 issued to Lurie et al.

The prior art bi-material MEM micro-cantilever devices bend, or deflect,when irradiation is absorbed by an absorber element of themicro-cantilever and heats the bi-material section of themicro-cantilever, causing one of the bi-materials to expand at a greaterrate than the other bi-material and resulting in deflection or bendingof the micro-cantilever. The terms bend and deflect are hereinafter usedinterchangeably. An example of a prior art micro-cantilever is shown inFIGS. 1 and 2.

FIG. 1 is a cross sectional view showing a prior art micro-cantilever10. As shown, the micro-cantilever 10 is suspended over the substrate12. Area 14 forms the opening between the substrate 12 and themicro-cantilever 10. The micro-cantilever 10 includes a thermalisolation region 16, a bi-material region 18 and an absorbing region 20.Within the absorbing region 20, the absorber material 22 helps absorbradiation which is incident on the micro-cantilever structure. In thebi-material region 18, a first bi-material film 24 and a secondbi-material 26 are present. Bi-material films 24 and 26 are contiguousand have different coefficients of thermal expansion.

When radiation is incident upon the MEM structure, the micro-cantilever10 is heated and bends because the two bi-material films 24 and 26expand at different rates. FIG. 1 shows micro-cantilever 10 in anoriginal position when the micro-cantilever is not exposed to radiation.

FIG. 2 shows the micro-cantilever structure of FIG. 1 in a deflected orbent position; in this case, away from the substrate 12. The distance Hindicates the deflection of the tip of the micro-cantilever, from theoriginal position. A variety of apparatuses and methods is available inthe art to provide a visual image having an intensity that variesaccording to the degree of the deflection H of the micro-cantileverstructure 100. More generally, various apparatuses and methods areavailable for providing optical imaging having an intensity which isdetermined by the amount of radiation sensed by a radiation sensor.

When radiation is incident on a prior art micro-cantilever being used asan image sensor, it is desired to produce a visible image having anintensity which varies monotonically with the intensity of the incidentradiation, over a wide dynamic range. As a micro-cantilever device bendsin response to incident radiation, it approaches a physical limitationto its degree of bending. For example, if a micro-cantilever device isfabricated to bend freely downward in response to incident radiation,the physical limitation is reached when the micro-cantilever touches thesubstrate over which it is formed. For a micro-cantilever device chosento bend upward in response to incident radiation, this too will reach aphysical limitation point past which it can no longer bend as abi-material. When this point of the physical limitation of bending isapproached, the micro-cantilever device is more resistant to bending andtherefore, less responsive to additional radiation. An increase in theamount of incident radiation does not cause the same extent of bendingas when the micro-cantilever is in the rest position.

While a significantly higher dose of radiation forces themicro-cantilever to bend slightly more towards its physical limitation,the degree of bending is not proportional and the device response is notlinear in this region. As a result, the linear range of the device islimited. The relationship between deflection H and the temperature ofthe micro-cantilever 10 is limited to the linear region.

Moreover, after the physical limitation point is reached, additionalincident radiation does not cause any further bending which limits thedynamic range of the device. Since the intensity of an optical imageultimately produced is based on the degree of bending, prior art deviceshave a poor dynamic range and are limited linearity, results inproducing an image having the same shortcomings.

Various methods for sensing the degree of free bending are available inthe art. Examples include optically measuring the distance between themicro-cantilever and the substrate, measuring the movement of an opticalbeam reflected from the tilting cantilever surface, or electricallymeasuring the capacitance of a capacitor which includes an electrodeformed in the substrate and another electrode formed in themicro-cantilever above the substrate. Various methods for producing avisible image having an intensity based upon the extent of bending arealso known.

A method for forming a micro-cantilever device is disclosed in U.S. Pat.No. 5,844,238 issued to Saur which describes an infrared imager usingroom temperature capacitance sensors. The infrared imager includes anarray of capacitance sensors that operate at room temperature and eachinfrared capacitance sensor includes a deflectable plate which bends inresponse to absorbed thermal radiation relative to a non-deflectablesecond plate. In one embodiment each infrared capacitance sensor iscomposed of a bi-material strip which changes the position of one plateof a sensing capacitor in response to temperature changes due toabsorbed incident thermal radiation.

Other prior art includes various configurations of physicalmicro-cantilever or other MEM structures. For examples, FIGS. 3 and 4show two embodiments of MEM structures which move in response toincident radiation. Each of the structures shown in FIGS. 3 and 4include rigid thermal isolation arms 16, bendable bi-material arms 18and an absorber area 20. It can be understood that, in addition to theexemplar structures shown in FIGS. 1-4, various other configurations forMEMs structures which bend or deflect in response to incident radiationare well known to those skilled in the art.

Improvements have been made to increase the dynamic range and linearityof the radiation sensors using bi-material MEMs structures available inthe art, by providing a radiation sensor using nulling circuitry alongwith a micro-cantilever structure, as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No.6,420,706 issued to Lurie which describes optical detectors usingnulling for high linearity and large dynamic range. The natural bendingof the bi-material is resisted by an electronic feedback signal toretain the absorber plate at a nulling position; thus the feedbacksignal is a measure of the bi-material temperature, and hence theirradiance. Examples taught for feedback signals include a piezoelectricelement to add a commanded stress to the micro-cantilever, a heaterelement to add a commanded heat load to the micro-cantilever, orinducement of an attractive electrostatic charge between themicro-cantilever and the substrate. Within the limits of theeffectiveness of the feedback signal to return the micro-cantilever tonull position, the linear range may be extended.

By their very function, bolometers are very sensitive thermometers,measuring differences in absorber plate temperature of the order ofhundredths of a degree. Moreover they possess a limited range of linearresponse to irradiative heating. Thus, present-art bolometers typicallyrequire addition of a thermoelectric refrigerator/heater to stabilizethe base temperature of the device. Aside from its cost and bulk, thedisadvantage is that power consumed by this thermoelectricrefrigerator/heater is typically the single largest power drain in theimaging system.

All of the above mentioned methods depend on various forms of analogmeasurement, with the many associated sources of noise in the analogsignal. Typically the noise sources in a cantilever bolometer includethermomechanical noise in the cantilever plate and the generally muchlarger electronic noise sources attendant on the analog nature of themeasurement: 1/f noise, shot noise, Johnson or resistor noise, andamplifier noise. Typically the sum of these noise components has beenfive to twenty times greater than the noise in the background radiationitself.

Another limit of prior art configurations has been the degree to whichthe bi-material bends for a given absorbed irradiance. It is desirablethat the bi-material bend maximally for a given irradiance. However,this desirable bending has been limited in prior art by the choices ofbi-material materials and bi-material design such as the difference inthermal expansion between the expansive bi-materials, the high thermalconductivity of the thermal isolating leg, and the stiffness of thecantilever support legs. The responsiveness of conventionalmicro-cantilevers is typically of the order of 0.04 microns per degreeC, with a maximum known MEMS bi-material responsiveness of 0.25 μ/° C.and is limited by three issues.

First, the prior art choice of bi-material materials has been limited toaluminum or gold as the expansive material, and silicon nitride as therelatively non-expansive material.

Second, the bending has been limited by a necessity to achieve rapidthermal stabilization of the temperature of the absorber plate andbi-material within a fraction of a video frame period, so that thebi-material bending can be measured before the end of the frame. Thishas typically required a thermal time constant of less than 10milliseconds for a 30 Hz video frame rate, and preferably 2.5milliseconds for a 60 Hz frame rate. The time constant of the cantileveris inversely proportional to the thermal conductance of the insulatorleg, necessitating the latter to be relatively large. Thus, for a givenirradiance the maximal bi-material temperature which is proportional tothe thermal time constant, is decreased. Thus the measurement signal isdecreased and the frame rate is limited to a low value.

Third, a limit of prior teaching has been the mechanical resonance ofthe cantilever itself because the support leg, which includes theinsulator leg plus bi-material, must be made stiff enough that thefreely supported mass of the absorber plate has a resonant frequencyhigher than that of ambient acoustic fields, typically higher than20,000 Hz. Were the mechanical resonance 2000 Hz, for example, a violinnote or a whistle could destroy the signal or the micro-cantileveritself. Consequently the coated absorber mass must be made small to thelimits of practicality and the bi-material and insulator legs must bemade relatively stiff and unresponsive.

Yet another limit of prior art bolometers is their necessity to “blink”frequently with the display periodically going visibly black, using amechanical shutter to remove the target irradiance from the array andzero out all the various readings of the bolometer sensors as theyslowly drift in base temperature. This is occasioned by the limitedirradiance range of the bolometer: essentially all of the dynamic rangeof the bolometer is required for constructing the final image.

An A/C coupled thermal imaging system has a signal that is centeredaround the “local average temperature” without an offset or pedestalwhich occurs independently across the array. Because of this, the deviceonly has to deal with the smaller A/C signal and it therefore has thecapability of handling substantially greater temperature variations inthe scene. However, if the scene does not change, there is no A/Ccomponent to the signal itself. Therefore A/C-coupled systems employ amechanical chopper, with the attendant issues of weight, power, lifetime and delicacy as to mechanical shock.

A DC coupled thermal imaging system measures a tiny signal on top of alarge DC background signal, which is a primary cause for noiselimitation in the minimum discernable signal. The DC-coupled thermalimaging system must handle the relatively very large offset as well asthe signal of interest. This complicates the system because the offsetsdiffer from pixel to pixel, and the differences vary slowly with time,increasing spatial noise in the system. As a result, DC-coupled systemsalso employ a mechanical shutter to periodically re-calibrate the sceneand minimize spatial noise. Both A/C and DC-coupled systems perform asimilar comparative function by periodically shuttering the system atsome time interval from a few seconds to a few minutes, usuallyresulting in an interruptive image freeze upon shuttering.

As described above in detail, the prior art micro-cantilever radiationsensors suffer from a number of disadvantages including:

(a) Because the temperature of the sensor element must reach a stablelevel before measurement may be made, the thermal time constant of themicro-cantilever must be made a fraction of the frame time. As a resultthe thermal conductance of the thermal insulator leg must be large, thetemperature rise for a given irradiance is less and the bend of theresponsive bi-material is decreased.

(b) Because in the past the use of aluminum or gold for the expansivematerial and silicon or silicon nitride for the less-expansive material,the difference in thermal expansion has been limited and the bend of thebi-material is decreased.

(c) Because the mechanical resonance of the micro-cantilever must behigher than ambient acoustic frequencies, the bi-material leg must bemade stiff, and the bend of the bi-material is in response to irradianceis decreased.

(d) In past micro-cantilever bolometers the measure of irradiance is ananalog signal, with the attendant 1/f, shot, Johnson, and amplifiernoise, which together increase the irradiance required to exceed thenoise of the sensor.

(e) As a result of the noise and insensitivity, bolometers have requiredthe longest exposure possible to reach a stable temperature formeasurement within the limited frame time, and thus have a limitedability to operate at a higher frame rate.

(f) Because of the need for stabilization of the substrate temperature,use of a costly and power-draining thermoelectric temperature regulatorhas been common.

(g) The linear measurements of past micro-cantilever bolometers aretypically exhibited on an 8-bit gray scale display, limiting theirlinearly displayable upper irradiance to 256 times the least resolveddisplay increment.

Thus, there is a need for an imaging sensor which operates by measuringabsorbed power as heat regardless of the wavelength of the irradiance toprovide a thermal-type irradiance imaging array, having improved rangein target radiance and decreased sensor noise, and not requiring the useof thermoelectric temperature stabilization.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

A primary objective of the invention is to provide methods, apparatusand systems for a thermal-type irradiance imaging array capable of lowerinternal noise and greater dynamic range; requiring neither periodicshuttering nor an internal refrigerator/heater; and measuring irradiancewith low noise over many orders of magnitude.

A second objective of the invention is to provide methods, apparatus andsystems for a radiant imager using null switching to provide an improvedirradiance sensor having all-digital sensing and measurement.

A third objective of the invention is to provide methods, apparatus andsystems for a radiant imager using electrostatic compensation to providean imager having no requirement for the cost, bulk and power drain of athermoelectric temperature regulator.

A fourth objective of the invention is to provide methods, apparatus andsystems for a radiant imager using null switching to provide an improvedimager which can measure irradiance over a very wide dynamic range in asingle image, such as from objects at temperatures from a fraction of adegree to thousands of degrees above ambient.

A fifth objective of the invention is to provide methods, apparatus andsystems for a radiant imager using null switching to provide an improvedirradiance sensor which can record image radiance in apseudo-logarithmic scale, such that the measurement scale is compressedfor high radiance and expanded for low radiance.

A sixth objective of the invention is to provide methods, apparatus andsystems for a radiant imager using null switching to provide an imagerhaving a noise-equivalent irradiance which varies with source radiance,such that the measurement noise is a small fraction of the signals fromboth least radiant targets and most radiant targets.

A seventh objective of the invention is to provide methods, apparatusand systems for a radiant imager using null switching to provide animager which is relatively insensitive to shock and acoustic vibrations.

An eighth objective of the invention is to provide methods, apparatusand systems for a radiant imager using null switching to provide animager which can provide continual imagery, without the interruption ordisturbance of mechanical shuttering.

A ninth objective of the invention is to provide methods, apparatus andsystems for a radiant imager using null switching to provide an imagercapable of useful irradiance imaging at high frame rates, such as 300Hz.

A tenth objective of the invention is to provide methods, apparatus andsystems for providing an imager which has a moderate fabrication costthrough using no exotic materials or processes other than available inconventional MEMS and CMOS foundries, and which can provide imageryutilizing ultraviolet, visible, infrared, or terahertz irradiation.

A first embodiment of the invention provides a deflectablemicro-cantilever device having a first conductive plate embedded in aninsulative substrate and having a voltage of a polarity, a conductiveplate on a surface of the substrate parallel with and above the firstplate and having an opposite polarity voltage and thus bearing aninduced electrostatic charge, and deflectable conductive plate separatedby a gap from the surface plate and supported by a cantilever elementconnected at one end to the surface plate and thus sharing theelectrostatic charge.

A second embodiment provides a micro-electro-mechanical sensor having asubstrate with a conductive plate embedded therein, a conductive surfaceplate formed on the surface of the substrate above and parallel with theembedded plate, a deflectable conductive absorber plate supported by abi-material element parallel to the surface plate and separated by agap, the deflectable absorber plate being electrically connected to thesurface plate to share its electrostatic charge, a first connection leadfor applying a voltage having a polarity to the embedded plate, a secondlead for applying an opposite polarity voltage to the surface place toinduce an electrostatic charge of a first polarity on the embedded plateand an electrostatic charge of a second polarity on both the surfaceplate and its connected absorber plate, and a third lead for coupling anull-sensing circuit to a micro-electro-mechanical switch contact on thesubstrate and opposite a switch contact on the deflectable absorberplate, for sensing a null position of the deflectable absorber platewhen the deflectable absorber plate bends toward the surface plate inresponse to the aggregate time-dependent effects of an initialbi-material temperature, incident radiation which increases thetemperature of the deflectable absorber plate and bi-material support,and a time-varying repulsive electrostatic field between thesame-polarity charges on the deflective absorber plate and the surfaceplate.

A third embodiment provides a system for displaying an image. The systemis an array of micro-cantilever sensors as already described, fabricatedon a surface of a substrate. Each one of the micro-cantilever sensorscorresponds to a pixel. A common variable voltage source is provided forapplying a variable voltage to the array of micro-cantilever sensorswith its corresponding array of null-sensing circuits. Each null-sensingcircuit is coupled with a corresponding one of the micro-cantileverdevices in the array for sensing an open and a closed position of themicro-cantilever switch contacts. The time between switch opening andswitch closing is a measure of the irradiation for each micro-cantileverdevice.

Further objects and advantages of this invention will be apparent fromthe following detailed description of preferred embodiments which areillustrated schematically in the accompanying drawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1 is a cross sectional view showing a prior art micro-cantilever.

FIG. 2 shows the micro-cantilever structure of FIG. 1 in a deflectedposition.

FIG. 3 shows a prior art micro-cantilever with folded support arms.

FIG. 4 shows a prior art bridge-style micro-cantilever.

FIG. 5 shows disposition of electrostatic charge on a three-elementconfiguration.

FIG. 6 is a top view of the micro-cantilever showing the upper electrode

FIG. 7 is a top view of a surface plate and middle electrode on thesubstrate.

FIG. 8 is a schematic cross-sectional view of a single micro-cantileversensor.

FIG. 9 shows experimental data: showing example of relation between themicro-cantilever temperature and the signal voltage required for switchopening.

FIG. 10 height of the absorber plate with time, absent electrostaticeffects

FIG. 11 shows example of a driving voltage cycle.

FIG. 12 shows height H of absorber plate with time, including theeffects of both target radiance and varying driving voltage.

FIG. 13 normalized temperature of radiating target versus elapsed switchtime

FIG. 14 target normalized radiance versus elapsed switch time;logarithmic ordinate scale

FIG. 15 shows an array of sensors

FIG. 16 shows an exemplar electronics circuit diagram of the operatingsystem

DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

Before explaining the disclosed embodiments of the present invention indetail it is to be understood that the invention is not limited in itsapplication to the details of the particular arrangements shown sincethe invention is capable of other embodiments. Also, the terminologyused herein is for the purpose of description and not of limitation.

The following is a list of the reference numbers used in the drawingsand the detailed specification to identify components:

-   10 prior art micro-cantilever-   12 insulating substrate-   14 gap below micro-cantilever-   16 insulator leg-   18 bi-material-   20 absorber plate-   22 absorber material coating-   24 a first layer of the bi-material-   26 a second layer of the bi-material-   28 deflectable absorber plate of joined pair-   30 surface plate of joined pair-   32 embedded plate-   34 voltage source-   36 charge of first polarity-   38 charge of opposite polarity-   40 charge fringe of opposite polarity-   42 attachment anchor-   44 substrate surface-   46 upper switch contact-   50 lower switch contact-   52 lower contact signal lead-   54 adjustable bias voltage-   56 cyclic control voltage-   58 switch latch/elapsed time counter-   60 normalization and linearization of digital time signal circuit-   62 video display-   64 absorber height over time, cool target-   66 absorber height over time, warm target-   68 absorber height over time, hot target-   70 actual absorber plate motion before switch closure-   72 switch closed, isothermalization-   74 signal voltage step function; lifts absorber plate-   76 signal voltage in linear decline; decreasing electrostatic force-   78 signal voltage in non-linear decline-   80 precision oscillator-   82 digital latch register-   84 sensor switch latch-   86 sensor N-bit capture register-   100 MEM device

In some aspects, the present invention embodies both the method andapparatus for converting a pattern of irradiation to a visible image. Apreferred embodiment of the present invention provides an array ofmicro-electro-mechanical sensors formed on a substrate, preferably aninsulative substrate. Each sensor includes a deflectablemicro-cantilever formed of an irradiance absorber plate supported by abi-material element which is in turn supported by a thermally insulativeelement, all electrically conductive and serially connected to aconductive plate on the surface of the substrate. The deflectablemicro-cantilever is suspended above the substrate and bends toward thesurface plate in response to absorbed incident radiation which increasesits temperature. The deflectable micro-cantilever also bends away fromthe surface plate in response to an applied repulsive electrostaticfield between the micro-cantilever and the surface plate. In an aspect,the sensor device also includes a null-sensing circuit coupled to aswitch contact on or near the substrate, which senses when themicro-cantilever reaches its null location, by electrical connectionwith an upper switch contact on the micro-cantilever.

In another aspect, the switch contact is a thermally conductive switchcontact serving to drain the accumulated thermal energy on the absorberplate into the substrate. The removal of the accumulated thermal energyon the sensor plate provides a consistent reference temperature for thebeginning of each cycle of heat absorption for the measurement ofirradiation. In yet another aspect, the repulsive electrostatic field iscontrolled through an applied voltage, which initiates each measurementcycle and provides a reference signal to which the irradiance signal isadded.

FIG. 8 illustrates an exemplary schematic of the present sensor,comprising a cantilever having an absorber plate 28 thermally connectedto a cantilever arm 18. Under the influence of environment irradiation,the absorber plate 28 heats up, and transfers the thermal energy to thecantilever arm 18. The cantilever arm is preferably made of abi-material element, which under heating, bends downward toward thesurface plate 30. The above description is exemplary, and the presentinvention is not restricted to the use of a bi-material element or thecantilever bending downward under the transferred thermal energy inducedfrom the environment irradiation. Other embodiments can be implemented,for example, the cantilever bending upward with increasing temperature,using resonant frequency as a measure of the plate mass, or thecantilever behavior in measuring acceleration.

The cantilever is also subjected to a repulsive electrostatic force froma surface plate 30, preferably disposed parallel and spaced apart fromthe absorber plate 28. The repulsive electrostatic force mostly applieson the absorber plate 28, with the cantilever arm 18 largely unaffectedby the electrostatic force, being narrow and generally remote fromsurface plate 30. The surface plate 30 is also electrically connected tothe absorber plate 28, and thus can share electrical charges with theabsorber plate 28. In an exemplary embodiment, the cantilever arm 18 isanchored to the substrate 12 at anchor point 42 through a thermallyinsulating cantilever leg 16. The anchor point 42 is preferablycontacting the surface plate, and thus the surface plate 30 and theabsorber plate 28 are electrical conductive through the anchor 42, thethermally insulative cantilever leg 16, and the bi-material cantileverarm 18.

The sensor preferably comprises a support substrate 12 having thesurface plate 30 disposed on the substrate surface 44 and a buried plate32 embedded within. The surface plate 30 and the buried plate 32 are twoelectrodes (a surface electrode and a buried electrode, respectively) ofan electrical source: for example, a bias voltage 54 in series with asignal voltage 56. The electrical source can provide electrical chargesto the two electrodes: for example, negative charges to the surfaceplate 30, induced by positive charges on adjacent buried plate 32, areconductively shared with the absorber plate 28. A repulsiveelectrostatic field is thus established between the surface plate 30 andthe absorber plate 28, repelling the absorber plate. The repulsive forceopposes the influence of irradiation, and their balance thus can modifythe bending of the cantilever arm in any desired movement ranges. Theabove description is exemplary, and the present invention is notrestricted to the cantilever repulsed upward under the repulsiveelectrostatic field. Other embodiments can be implemented, for example,an attractive electrostatic field, or a cantilever bending upward withincreasing temperature.

With the surface plate 30 being the surface electrode, and the buriedplate 32 being a buried electrode of the electrical source, thesubstrate 12 is preferably an insulative substrate, or at least beinginsulative around and between the two electrodes. The electrodes of theelectrical source are described as plates, e.g., surface plate 30 andburied plate 32, but in general, electrodes of any geometry, volume orshape can be used. Bias voltage supply 54 provides a repulsive force onthe absorber plate 28, to compensate the sensor for the ambient, orsubstrate, temperature. Signal voltage 56 is additive to bias voltage54, and provides an additional and cyclic repulsive force to theabsorber plate 28 to control the data-measurement cycle. The waveform ofthe signal voltage 56 can be a cyclic sawtooth waveform. Modifying thewaveform and timing of the signal voltage supply 56 can change theresponse curve of the sensor: for example, compensating fornon-linearities of the cantilever sensor.

The exemplary sensor device further comprises a switching element forsensing the null position of the absorber plate 28 or the cantilever arm18. The switching element thus can provide a digital signal indicativeof the sensor condition. In an embodiment, the switching elementcomprises a first switch terminal 50 disposed on the insulativesubstrate 12, and a second switch terminal 46 disposed on, andelectrically connected to the absorber plate 28. The switching elementis connected to a measurement circuit for determining the irradiationstrength, for example, through a latch/elapsed time counter 58 and acalibration circuit 60, to a display 62. In an aspect, the switchingelement can also act as a thermal drain, draining the heat accumulatedon the absorber plate 28 in the course of a measurement cycle. Thethermal drainage of the absorber plate 28 resets the startingtemperature and stress in the bi-material element 18, allowing theabsorber plate to repeat each measurement from a controlled referencelevel.

FIG. 6 illustrates a top view of the micro-cantilever structureaccording to a preferred embodiment of the present invention, showingthe structure supporting the absorber plate 28 (also called the upperplate or the deflectable plate), together with a switch terminal 46.Deflectable plate 28 is irradiation absorbing and mechanically andthermally connected to a supporting bi-material structure 18, therebymaintaining the bi-material 18 at substantially the same temperature asabsorber plate 28. It may be convenient to use any of many othergeometries but the geometry of this preferred embodiment allows the areaof the absorber plate 28 to occupy a maximal fraction of the availablearea.

The absorber plate 28 is rigid, and is constructed of a material andconfiguration for minimum mass. In an embodiment, it is thermallyconductive to transmit heat to the bi-material 18. In a preferredembodiment of the present invention, the absorber plate 28 is alsoelectrically conductive. If a convenient but insulative material such assilicon nitride or silicon oxide is sued, a conductive material (e.g.,metal) outer layer such as gold can be coated to the nonconductingsilicon nitride. In such a case, care should be made to prevent adversethermo-geometric effects, resulting from the bi-material construction ofthe absorber plate. For example, ceramics with addition of a conductivelayer on both top and bottom should be used. Alternatively, in apreferred embodiment, the absorber plate is made of homogeneousgraphite, satisfying all the desired requirements. Graphite is stiff,has low density, is thermally and electrically conductive, and hasmoderately high optical absorption.

A thermally resistive “insulator” leg 16 supports the opposite end ofthe bi-material 18 and is mounted by an attachment point or “anchor” 42to the substrate surface 44. In an embodiment, the substrate material ischosen to have a high electrical resistivity and high breakdown voltage,such as un-doped silicon or silicon dioxide. The absorber plate 28 andbi-material 18 have relatively high thermal conductivity and thus, underirradiation, substantially all the temperature drop is across theinsulator leg 16 supporting the bi-material.

Micro-cantilever absorption of incident radiation of a predominantwavelength is enhanced by positioning the absorber plate 28 aquarter-wavelength above a reflective surface plate on the substrate.This optically resonant positioning maximizes the electric field of theradiation within the absorber plate 28.

In an embodiment of the invention, the absorber plate 28 intrinsicallyabsorbs the radiation of interest such as, but not limited to,ultraviolet, visible, infrared, terahertz or charged-particle radiation.Alternatively, the absorber plate includes a coating which absorbs theradiation. For enhanced absorption of electromagnetic radiation, thepreferred coating is a metal black, such as gold black. Gold black isgold evaporated in a partial vacuum, with a neutral residual gas such asargon or nitrogen at a gas pressure between 1 and 10 Torr. The goldatoms collide with the gas, are cooled, collide with each other, andform a filamentous coating on the substrate. Typically the coating has adensity less than one percent that of the solid metal. Gold black (oraluminum, nickel or other conductor) is among the most absorptivecoatings known, across the visible and infrared regions. Even atterahertz frequencies, a very thin (tens of microns) coating of goldblack is strongly absorbing, when the conductivity is in the range ofapproximately 1 to approximately 1000 ohm per meter.

The bi-material 18 is made of materials chosen to have a maximaldifferential coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE). The principles ofoperation of bi-material micro-cantilever devices are well known tothose skilled in the sensor art. In the past, silicon carbide or siliconnitride has been used for the low-CTE layer, and gold or aluminum forthe high-CTE layer. In a preferred embodiment silicon dioxide is usedfor its low CTE, approaching zero, and zinc is used for its high CTE.Though selenium and plutonium each have higher CTEs, their use inindustrial processes is problematic. Polymers may be used for their veryhigh CTEs, but have limited mechanical strength, particularly in thevery thin films required for high bi-material element sensitivity.

In addition to differential thermal expansion, another parameterdetermining the responsivity (microns of plate deflection per degree C.)of the bi-material is its thickness, or the separation between thecenter, or neutral, fiber of each of the bi-material layers.Responsivity increases with decreasing bi-material thickness. However,the mechanical resonant frequency of the absorber plate mass on theflexing bi-material support also decreases with bi-material thicknessand stiffness.

In some embodiments, a terminal switch 46 is incorporated in theabsorber plate 28, which in closing at the end of each measurement,renders the present sensor to be vibration-insensitive to harmonicoscillations. Vibration sensitive sensors which are free to respond toresonant acoustic disturbances can absorb sufficient mechanical energyto destroy the signal or the micro-cantilever itself, unless themechanical resonance is higher than the frequency of the acousticdisturbance. In the past this has meant that such cantilevers andbi-material elements necessarily were relatively thick, to get themechanical resonant frequency above typically 20,000 Hz, to thedetriment of the bi-material responsivity (generally between 0.04 to amaximum of 0.25 microns per degree C.). In exemplary embodiments, thepresent sensor comprises a switching element, which includes a contact(e.g., first terminal 50 disposed on the substrate surface 44 and secondterminal 46 disposed on the absorber plate 28) to essentially stop anyaccumulated vibration or unwanted mechanical movement of themicro-cantilever at the end of each measurement cycle. As a result, thepresent sensor is not limited to relatively stiff bi-material designs.With this vibration-insensitive design, the present bi-material sensorcan be made as thin as desired, limited only by fabrication techniques.The immediate benefit of this thinner bi-material and the improvedchoice of materials is a higher responsivity, for example, approximately1.3 microns/degree, or 5 times greater sensitivity than available inprior art.

Still referring to FIG. 6, in an embodiment the insulator leg 16typically of silicon nitride or silicon dioxide is made electricallyconductive with a thin coating of a conductor such as gold or aluminum.The coating thickness is in the range between approximately 20 toapproximately 100 nanometers to provide electrical conductivity withminimum thermal drain. The function of the insulator leg 16 is tothermally isolate the absorber plate 28 and the bi-material 18 from thesubstrate 44 heat sink. The thermal conductance of the insulator leg 16in part determines the thermal time constant of the micro-cantilever 10.

In the past it was necessary to stabilize the temperature ofirradiance-sensing element before its value (resistance, capacitance orthe like) could be recorded. Thus the thermal time constant wasnecessarily a fraction of a frame time, and making the final signalrelatively small. Through the use of frame-dynamic irradiance sensing,in an embodiment, the present invention makes such intra-frametemperature stabilization for absorber plate 28 unnecessary. The thermaltime constant is no longer limited, and can be increased to exceed theframe time by decreasing the conductance of the insulating leg 16. Withthe insulator leg having a very low thermal conductance, the temperatureof the plate rises continually during a frame time to a higher finalvalue. With a longer thermal time constant, the deflection of thebi-material is greater, and the measured temperature response to a givenirradiance is greater than in prior art devices.

FIG. 7 shows an embodiment of the surface plate 30 affixed to thesubstrate surface 44, located under the absorber plate 28. The surfaceplate 30 is fabricated of conductor such as gold or aluminum and thoughnot here shown, is electrically connected with the anchor 42. As notedabove, the serially connected anchor 42, insulator leg 16, bi-material18, and absorber plate 28 are made electrically conductive byapplication of a thin conductive over-coating of metal such as gold oraluminum when necessary.

In some embodiments, the surface plate 30 provides an electrostaticforce on the absorber plate 28 counter to the bending of the cantileverarm 18. The counter force is preferably established by a repulsiveelectrostatic field between the surface plate 30 and the absorber plate28, generated by a supply voltage, for example, a bias voltage 54 inseries with a cyclic signal voltage 56. The counter force serves tocompensate the sensor response for ambient or substrate temperature,provides a cyclic component for signal generation, and can be modifiedto tailor the linearity of the irradiance measurement. The counter forceis preferably a repulsive electrostatic force, but can be any forcegenerated from a voltage supply, such as attractive electrostatic force.

In an embodiment, the surface plate 30 extends to encounter the anchorpoints 42, for providing connection with the leg 16 and the cantileverarm 18. The surface plate 30 can have a notch corresponded to the switchterminal 46 from the absorber plate 28. Disposed at the notch is aswitch terminal 50 having a connection 52 leading to the measuringcircuit.

FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram showing the electrostatic principles ofcertain embodiments of the present invention. The micro-cantileverstructure 100 shown in FIG. 5 includes a conductive deflectable plate 28and a conductive surface plate 30 substantially parallel to thedeflectable plate 28, which plates are electrically connected and areseparated by a gap 29. The deflectable plate 28 and surface plate 30 areelectrically connected to a parallel conductive embedded plate 32through a voltage source 34. The configuration shown in FIG. 5 includesa battery 34 as the voltage source, although alternative voltage sourcesmay be substituted. Battery potential 34 causes electric charges 36 ofone sign to appear on embedded plate 32 and charges 38 of opposite signto appear on surface plate 30, according to the electric field betweenthe plates.

In the example shown, the embedded plate 32 has a positive charge 36 andthe surface plate 30 has a negative charge 38, although the charges onthe plates can be reversed. The induced charge 38 on the surface plate30 self-repels and a portion 40 of the electrical charge on the fringeof the electrical charge 38 migrates to and spread across thedeflectable plate 28. Generally, the fringing charge 40 on thedeflectable plate 28 is less than the electrical charge 38 onelectrically connected surface plate 30, although their sum is equal tothe opposing charge 36 accumulated on the embedded plate 32. Thetransferred charge 40 on the deflectable plate 28 is repelled by thefield of the same-polarity charge 38 on the surface plate 30 in a mannersimilar to the familiar gold-leaf electrometer. The transferred change40 is determined according to the formula:

Force F₂₈ on deflectable plate 28 is equal to the charge C₄₀ on upperplate 28 times the charge C₃₈ on surface plate 30 divided by twice themutual area times e₀, where e₀=8.854×10⁻¹² farad per meter, thepermittivity of free space, which can be rewritten as:

F ₂₈(C ₄₀) [(C ₃₈)/2 (mutual area) (8.854×10⁻¹² farad per meter)

assuming there are no edge effects, meaning that the plates are muchlarger than the gap between the upper plate 28 and the surface plate 30.

Referring now to FIG. 6, in some embodiments, the sensor devicecomprises a switch contact for sensing the absorber plate or thecantilever arm at a predetermined null position. The switch ispreferably an electrical switch, thus providing a digital signalindicating the moment when the sensor arm leaves or reaches the switchlocation. In an embodiment, the switch comprises an upper switch contactterminal 46, (better shown in FIG. 8), connected with the lower surfaceof the absorber plate 28. An example of a location for the upper switchcontact is marked by the cross 46 on the absorber plate 28 in FIG. 6. Alower contact terminal 50 shown in FIGS. 7 and 8 is located below anupper switch contact terminal 46 on the absorber plate 28 shown in FIG.6. In this embodiment the end of the conductive surface plate shown inFIG. 7 is notched to prevent electrical contact between the lower switchcontact 50 and surface plate 30. Lower contact 50 is connected to thenull-sensing circuitry (not shown) by electrical signal lead 52. Themicro-cantilever components are electrically conducting, eitherintrinsically or by addition of a conductive film, in order toelectrically connect the upper switch contact 46 to the substrate 44 atthe anchor point 42. Alternatively, the switch element can be acontactless switch, or any switch component changing state when thecantilever passes through a certain predetermined position. However, acontact switch is preferred since it can be used to reset the thermalenergy accumulated on the absorber plate 28.

As the absorber plate 28 is irradiated its temperature increases and thecontiguous heated bi-material 18 presses the absorber plate 20 downwardagainst the declining repulsive electrostatic field. The position of themicro-cantilever is sensed at the null position by the opening orclosing of the switch contacts: the moment of measurement. As a result,positional and process non-linearities associated with bending out ofthe null position have no impact on the quality of the finalmeasurement.

In use for sensing or imaging, the motion of the micro-cantilever isterminated at the end of each frame by the closure of switch contactsbetween absorber plate 28 and the substrate 44. This has threebeneficial results. First, it indicates return of the absorber plate toits null position. Second, the accumulated heat from absorbed irradianceis rapidly drained from the absorber plate through the switch contact,isothermalizing the absorber plate and bi-material with the substrate.And third, it stops any accumulated vibration or unwanted mechanicalmovement of the micro-cantilever. Thus each frame measurement is begunwith the micro-cantilever sensor returned to its initial conditions.

Within a video frame time there is insufficient time to absorb damagingresonant energy in an ordinary acoustic field. In the present invention,periodic arrest of all cantilever motion has the added benefit ofinsensitivity to shock, such as from firing when mounted on a rifle,where a single frame may be disrupted.

In some embodiments, the switch element can be employed for measuringthe environment influence by the time required for the switch element tochange states. The extent of bending of the micro-cantilever withincreasing temperature as radiation is absorbed is perceived as anincreasing force acting to close the switch against a controlled,declining, repulsive electrostatic force acting to keep it open. Theelectrostatic force is increased according to increase in the appliedvoltage between the embedded plate and the surface plate. When voltageis varied in a repeated cycle ending in isothermalization, the timebetween switch opening and closing is a measure of the sampled andabsorbed irradiance.

Returning to FIG. 8, which is a schematic diagram of a preferredembodiment of the sensor system according to the present invention, theabsorber plate 28 is supported by bi-material element 18 and insulatorleg 16, with a mobile switch contact 46 which contacts with the lowercontact 50 on the substrate. The substrate switch contact 50 isconnected with the signal lead 52 approximately on the surface 44 of thesubstrate 12. The surface plate 30 is formed on the substrate surface44, leaving a gap 14 between the absorber plate 28 and the surface plate30. The gap 14 should in principal be as thin as practical to maximizethe electrostatic effects on which this invention depends. One of theadvantages of the preferred embodiments of the present invention is thatin practice the gap 14 can be as little as a fraction of a micron toimprove sensitivity. A conductive embedded plate 32 in the substrate 12below the conductive surface plate 30 is electrically connected via biasvoltage 54 and control voltage 56 in series, to the joined surface plate30 and absorber plate 28 to create the separation of charge shown inFIG. 5.

In the schematic example of FIG. 8, a negative charge is impressed onthe embedded plate 32 with a positive charge on the surface plate 30.This electrical field between plates from this separation of chargecreates an attractive force between the respective plates which areseparated by the intervening insulating substrate 12. By mutualrepulsion within the charge sheet, the fringe of the positive chargeimpressed on the surface plate 30 extends onto the absorber plate 28 toshare between the plates 28 and 30. Thus the absorber plate 28 isrepelled from the surface plate 30 by their like charges in the samemanner as an electrometer. This force is proportional to the square ofthe sum of bias voltage 54 and the cyclic control voltage 56 and isinversely proportional to the square of gap 14 between the surface plate30 and the absorber plate 28.

In an embodiment, the repulsive force is opposed by the influence of theenvironment, such as the irradiation field heating the absorber plate toprogressively bend the cantilever arm. As the signal voltage 56 declinesto its base value, the increasingly strong force of theirradiance-heated bend presses the absorber plate 28 downward until theswitch contacts 46 and 50 close at the null position. By the end of themeasurement period, when the control voltage 56 has returned to its basevalue, the contacts are at rest in mutual contact, isothermalizing theabsorber plate with the substrate 12 by their thermal conduction.

In a preferred embodiment, the upper and lower contacts 46 and 50 aredesigned to be minimally influenced by diffusion welding of the contactsto avoid surface damage and a breakaway voltage requirement, such as bythe use of a diamond-like carbon for the contact material, althoughother conductive substances may be used. Additionally, in the preferredconfiguration the absorber plate 28 is graphite and the lower contact 50is gold so that the lattice constant mismatch between these materialsminimizes diffusion bonding.

The residual stresses in the bi-material leg are controlled infabrication, such that at room temperature and without voltage applied,the switch is reposed in the closed position. The upper contact 46 ismechanically pressed against the lower contact 50 by the bend of thebi-material element, to maintain the gap 14 between the absorber plate28 and the surface plate 30. At a sufficiently low temperature and/orsufficiently high bias voltage 54 the absorber plate 28 lifts or isrepelled away from the surface plate 30 and separates the switch uppercontact 46 from the lower contact 50. This is referred to as the“lift-off” temperature for a particular voltage.

The voltage control inputs of FIG. 8 include a DC bias voltage 54 ofzero to a few hundred volts, added to a cyclic control voltage 56 in arange of a few volts to tens of volts. The voltage sources 54 and 56 areserially connected between the embedded plate 32 and the pair ofmutually connected surface 30 and absorber 28 plates. The function ofthe bias voltage 54 is to provide electrostatic repulsion to overcomethe bend of the bi-material induced by ambient or substrate temperature.In one embodiment this bias voltage 54 is a manual setting chosen by theuser to exclude objects below a certain radiance from the imagerecording.

FIG. 9 is a graph showing lift-off voltage as a function of substratetemperature for a typical sensor of the present teaching. Theexperimental data shown in FIG. 9 illustrates the electromechanicaloperation of an exemplar micro-cantilever sensor having an absorberplate size of approximately 60×80 microns (μ) with the separationbetween the surface plate 30 and the absorber plate 28 at null positionof approximately 2μ.

In this experiment the temperature of the bi-material was adjusted byplacing the substrate in contact with a thermoelectrictemperature-variable plate. At each sample temperature shown on theabscissa in FIG. 9, the bias voltage 54 is increased until the absorberplate 28 is electrostatically repelled or “lifts off”, opening switchcontacts 46 and 50. As illustrated with a straight line overlay forcomparison, the variation of lift-off voltage with temperature is verynearly linear.

The slope of this dotted data line is approximately 3.65 volts perdegree C. For comparison, the cantilever of this sensor design reaches asteady-state change in temperature of approximately 1° C. due toreceived irradiance from a human-temperature target. Thus, in thisexample an appropriate scale for the cyclic control voltage 56 is lessthan 5 volts peak to peak for imaging humans.

By stresses locked in at manufacture, this micro-cantilever experimentalsample was manufactured so the contacts are open at a temperature belowminus 16.6° C., and the sensor would not be useful below thattemperature. At an ambient temperature of 20° C. the bi-material causesthe contacts to press strongly together, and in this example of FIG. 9 avoltage of approximately 122 volts for the bias voltage 54 is requiredto lift the strained bi-material enough to break switch contact at 20°C. The user in the field might for instance choose to set the biasvoltage 54 at 120 volts, with a periodic sawtooth voltage 56 of 3 voltspeak, to obtain switch closure within the time of each cycle of voltage56 followed by opening for a new measurement at the beginning of thenext sawtooth cycle.

The substrate in this experimental MEMS sensor example was found tobreak down for a total voltage of 54 plus 56 greater than 190 volts,limiting the electrostatic upper compensation in this example to 37° C.This sensor example of FIG. 9 may here be seen to be usable over asubstrate temperature range of minus 16.6° C. to 37° C., wherein aselectable electrostatic force suffices to overcome the bi-materialforce and open the switch. As will be evident to one skilled in the art,these temperatures of least and greatest substrate temperatures may beadjusted over a wide range, by choice of materials, deposition methods,physical dimensions of the layers, and other conventional processparameters.

When the micro-electromechanical device is used in arctic conditions, itis useful to heat the substrate to provide a bias thermal load tosupplement the bias voltage to maintain the substrate temperature at anyconvenient temperature higher than its lift-off temperature at zeroapplied voltage 54. In this arctic case, it is sufficient that theauxiliary heat merely bring the substrate within the operating range ofelectrostatic stabilization of the micro-cantilever.

In the preferred embodiment, automated feedback control of the biasvoltage 54 in real time is accomplished by reading a number ofadditional reference radiation sensors from which the incident radiationis blocked. Typically the reference radiation sensors are uniformlydistributed around an array of the sensors to measure the averagetemperature of the substrate. If the bias voltage 54 for the array ofradiation sensors is set by a feedback circuit such that these referencesensors are just below the threshold of switch opening for a selectedirradiance level, then with the addition of control voltage 56 themeasured switch time values from the array of exposed sensors are directmeasurement of the irradiation image intensity above the selectedthreshold level. Thus, complete compensation for the base temperaturefrom which the temperature-sensitive bi-material measures irradiance isaccomplished without altering the physical temperature of the substrate,as has been required for prior art devices.

In an aspect, a measurement of the sensor response to the irradiationfield is the time between switch changing states. For example, the lowercontact 50 is connected to a switch latch/elapsed time measurementcircuit 58 via the lead 52. The switch latch/elapsed time measurementcircuit 58 is initiated when the switch opens and is terminated when theswitch closes. In one embodiment this switch stores the control voltage56 at the time of switch closure as indicative of the time. In apreferred embodiment this circuit is a register slaved to an externaloscillator/counter. The length of time between switch opening andclosure is a measure of the absorbed radiation. The time value istransmitted as a data stream to normalization and calibration circuit 60which displays the result on video display 62.

An exemplary process for using the present sensor comprises firstsetting the sensor arm to the null position. The switch contact isclosed, essentially zeroing the temperature difference from thesubstrate. A voltage step is then applied, generating a repulsive forcefor repelling the sensor upward. Leaving the drainage position, theabsorber plate begins to collect and integrate irradiation which makesthe temperature climb steadily, which steadily increases the downwardflexural force. At the same time the voltage 56 is declining. Thebalance of forces of the decreasing repulsive force and the increasingforce from the rising temperature in the bi-material element moves thesensor arm toward the contact. The time for the contact to close is anindicative of the time-dependent temperature of the bi-material leg 18and hence of the strength of the irradiation field. If there is noirradiance the time of closure is the time when the voltage 56 returnsto is base value. If there is some irradiance the contacts close sooner.If there is a great deal of irradiance the contacts close even sooner.At contact, the absorber plate quickly loses the accumulated heatthrough the thermal drainage contact. The cycle of the control voltage56 then re-starts.

In a preferred embodiment, the strength of the irradiation field ismeasured by the time between the switch changing states. This time canbe adjusted by the voltage waveform, which then can vary the responsefunction of the sensor. The following paragraphs describe the responseof the sensor arm without the applied voltage, the response of thesensor arm without the irradiation field, and the response of the sensorarm under the combination of the applied voltage and the irradiationfield.

FIG. 10 is a graph schematically showing the thermal-irradianceproperties of the sensor structure without applied voltage, chilled toraise the unirradiated absorber plate a unit distance above zero. When asteady radiant-heating of the freely suspended absorber plate 28 beginsat zero time, absorbed heat builds in the absorber plate 28 and attachedbi-material, and the bi-material flexes gradually in a downwarddirection with rising temperature. Over time the temperature rises andthe height of the absorber plate 28 decreases slowly as shown in thegraphs by line 64 or quickly as shown in the graphs by line 68 accordingto the irradiance. At an intermediate heating rate the theoreticalposition of the tip of the moving absorber plate is shown as a dottedline 66 and the actual trajectory of the absorber plate is shown as asolid line 70 which ends at zero height by the closure of the switchcontacts. The time between switch opening at the beginning of theheating cycle and return of the absorber plate to null position is ameasure of the irradiance on, or heating rate of, the absorber plate.

The temperature of the absorber plate and bi-material rises to within1/e or 63.2% of its final value in one “thermal time constant”. Thethermal time constant is equal to the heat capacity of the absorbingplate plus bi-material divided by the thermal conduction of theinsulator structure. In the present invention, the time constant ispreferably 1 to 2 times the length of measurement time to provide atime-variable temperature having a slope that is co-variable withirradiant power and to maximize the temperature rise and resultantdeflection of the bi-material leg.

Without the irradiation field, the response of the sensor arm is afunction of the applied voltage which generates the repulsiveelectrostatic field. FIG. 11 shows a typical cyclic waveform used as thecontrol voltage. In a preferred embodiment, the cyclic control voltage56 is a declining sawtooth wave 76, typically of a few volts peak tovalley, and has a cycle frequency equal to the video frame rate.

At the beginning of a frame 72 the control voltage 56 is at its basevalue, and the switch contacts 46 and 50 are closed, and switch height His zero. The micro-cantilever heat is drained through the contacts toisothermalize the absorber plate 28 and bi-material 18 with thesubstrate 12. Bias voltage 54 is adjusted to, for example, one volt lessthan necessary to open the switch contacts. At the initiation 74 of theframe as FIG. 11 indicates, control voltage 56 is additively imposedbetween the surface plate 30 and the embedded plate 32 as a stepfunction 74, lifting the absorber plate 28 a distance above its nullposition and opening the switch contacts. Absorbed irradiance is nowintegrated in the absorber plate 28 to steadily heat the absorber plate28 and its attached bi-material 18. The increasing temperature causesthe bi-material to flex downward, steadily increasing a downwardpressure of the absorber plate 28 against the programmed, diminishing,electrostatic repulsion between the surface plate 30 and the absorberplate 28.

The control voltage 56 is steadily decreased to a selected base value 72until by the end of the frame, all switch contact pairs in the sensorarray have closed and ended their individual measurements. In thepreferred embodiment, the control voltage 56 is generally the shape of asawtooth wave 76 as depicted in FIG. 11, although for purposes oflinearization or other alteration of the transfer function, the waveform78 may depart from a linear relationship with time. Alternative controlvoltage cycles will be obvious to those skilled in the art with anunderstanding of the sensor of the present invention. The controlvoltage in this embodiment is the periodic sawtooth wave 56 shown inFIG. 11, with a period equal to the selected frame rate and a selectedpeak voltage of a convenient value, typically in the range of 5 to 10volts peak to valley. As shown in FIG. 11, the bias voltage is set suchthat the switch is closed when the sawtooth waveform is at its minimum(72), and the absorber plate 28 becomes isothermalized with thesubstrate 12. At the beginning of a measurement cycle or frame, thevoltage increases (74) to a peak voltage to lift the absorber plate andopen the switch, to initiate the irradiant heating of the absorberplate. As the signal voltage 56 then decreases (linearly 76 ornon-linearly 78) the electrostatic force decreases. By the time thesawtooth voltage returns to its minimum (72), the switch returns to theclosed position.

The interval between switch contact opening and closing is the measureof the irradiance and is referred to hereinafter as the “switch time”.When the target has the same radiance as the sensor (no net energy flow)switch time is essentially equal to the base interval of the controlvoltage waveform 56. By the end of the measurement period all theswitches have closed. Typically this measurement period is approximately30 milliseconds for a 30 hertz frame rate, or approximately 15milliseconds for a 60 hertz frame rate.

After the first switch closure in a particular sensor the absorber plategenerally exhibits a slow oscillation or chatter with amplitudedecreasing with decreasing control voltage 56. This results from thecantilever repetitively chilling against the colder substrate and itsthen rising to accumulate a subsequent heating, lowering load. After theswitch opens at the start 74 of a timing period, only the first switchclosure for each sensor element is recorded as the measurement event.

Thus the waveform of the applied voltage can change the response of thesensor, meaning the time for the sensor arm to reaches the switchposition. The trajectory of the moving contact is illustrated for anexemplar sensor by the graph shown in FIG. 12 for various targetnormalized radiances. The graph corresponds to the example formicro-cantilever model with a control voltage 56 having a sawtoothwaveform that linearly decreases from an initial peak value. Althoughthe sensor may be used for any wavelength absorbed by the absorber plateor its coating, the graph shown in FIG. 12 models a thermal IR sensorabsorbing a range of 8 to 14 microns wavelength with correspondingtarget temperatures indicated at the right. The temperatures of theradiating black-body targets sequentially vary in temperature by a ratioof 2:1.

In the example of FIG. 12, for a target 2° C. above the substratetemperature, the absorbed irradiation induces a thermal flexure of thebi-material, which adds to the electrostatic cycle to close the switchin approximately 98% of the measurement time. For a target 20° C. abovesubstrate temperature, the switch closes at approximately 73% of themeasurement time, and for a target 200° C. above substrate temperaturethe switch closes at approximately 20% of the measurement time. For atarget 2000° C. above substrate temperature the switch closes atapproximately 3% of the measurement time.

It is useful to note that this measurement is preferably a digitalmeasurement, with the switch time based on counting pulses from areference precision oscillator. In the past, infrared sensors haverequired detection of a very small analog signal in a very noisy analogbackground; all of this is avoided in the present invention. Using a 14bit counter the digital uncertainty for a typically time measurement is±1 bit, or approximately ±0.006% of the measurement time, or less thanone millikelvin for targets near ambient. Thus, unlike the prior artanalog measurement of resistance or capacitance, with Johnson andhigh-impedance amplifier noise, the measurement obtained with thepresent invention has only the digital noise of approximately ±½ of aclock cycle, plus the inherent thermo-mechanical noise of thecantilever.

One of the primary benefits of the present invention is that therelation between irradiance and the switch time is not a linear measure.A large change in the switch time is provided at low target radiance(e.g., target temperature near that of the substrate), and progressivelysmaller changes in switch time with increasing target radiance.

In one embodiment the actual sawtooth control voltage Vc 56 at which theswitch closes is recorded and used as a measure of the length of timethe control voltage has decreased. For a linear sawtooth-wave controlvoltage waveform, the variation of switch closure voltage with targetradiance is shown in FIG. 13, with the normalized abscissainterchangeably calibrated as switch time or its voltage equivalent(1-Vc).

The irradiance transfer function is further illustrated in FIG. 14,where the logarithm of the relative target radiance of FIG. 13 is shownversus the switch time. Three exemplar curves are shown, for thermalintegration time of the cantilever equal to approximately 1, 1.5 and 2times the base interval of the control voltage. The responsivity of thesensor is pseudo-logarithmic over much of the time scale, withcompression of the radiance scale at high temperatures and switch timeapproaching zero, and expansion of the radiance scale as the radianceapproaches ambient and switch time approaches 100%.

At low target radiance, the switch time changes rapidly with elevatingtarget irradiance, giving the sensor high resolution for low radiance,or “low temperature” targets when infrared irradiation is beingmeasured. At intermediate target radiance the switch time changes moreslowly, approximately as the logarithm of irradiation. At the highesttarget radiances and short switch time, the target temperature becomesincreasingly sensitive to switch time, with a slope approaching infinityas the switch time approaches zero. At all values the relationship ismonotonic.

In the prior art great virtue was made of various methods for achieving“linearity” in the measurement. In general these failed, and a lookuptable was necessary between the sensor and the display to compensate forpixel-to-pixel sensitivity variations and to linearize the data. Unlikethe prior art, in the present invention a lookup table is implicit andcan thus produce any desired relationship between the switch time andthe gray scale on the final display, as will be familiar to one versedin the electronics display art.

In some application, it may be useful to display the data linearly, suchthat a given displayed change in gray scale corresponds to a specifictemperature change, such as 0.5° or 5°. This allows the device to beused as an imaging radiometer, for the limited temperature rangeavailable to be displayed which is typically 8 bit, or 256 steps intemperature resolution.

In a thermal infrared viewer the usual application is to view primarilyhuman-temperature targets of approximately 33 C°, with a strong interestin faintly warm patterns like the heat of footprints and a tertiaryinterest in hotter objects such as burning objects and the flamesthemselves. In a preferred embodiment of data manipulation, a logarithmof the temperature is displayed to emphasize faint patterns such as theshape of a person behind a wall, clearly delineating the detail of ahuman figure and still showing the details of the burning building andthe flames behind the human figure.

This maximizes the useful information delivered to the human viewer bythe generally available 256 gray shades of the visual display.Possessing “logarithmic vision” will of course be a new capability, andlike any augmented-vision instrumentation, will require some personneltraining to fully utilize.

In prior art bolometer or micro-cantilever sensors the frame rate waslimited by the sensor noise and the size of the signal generated in themeasurement time available. Thus thermal imagers require the use of thefastest (largest diameter, most expensive) objective lenses, typicallyF/1, and are rarely useful at higher than approximately 60 Hz framerate.

The present invention provides an enhanced responsivity of themicro-cantilever by virtue of improved bi-material materials anddeceased bi-material thickness as compared with the parameters of priormicro-cantilever art.

Another advantage of the present invention is that the bias and controlvoltage noise is simply that of capacitor noise, and the effective noiseof the oscillator is reduced to plus or minus one-half-cycle of theselected oscillator frequency. While this yields a noise equivalentradiation which is much smaller than required by usual sensorapplications, this advantage may be employed to increase the frame rate(decrease the measurement time). In that case, the thermal time constantis reduced with a corresponding reduction in bi-material temperature. Inother applications the advantage in overall sensitivity is utilized toreduce the cost of the imaging optics, such as by using a smallerdiameter lens or fabrication from less transmissive materials.

FIG. 15 shows plural sensors designed to maximize the active area of theabsorber plate when arranged in an array, with a single micro-cantileversensor indicated in black.

FIG. 16 is a schematic diagram of a preferred embodiment in which thesensor array uses a common source 82 of clock information and a commonsource of bias voltage 54 and control voltage 56. A precise frequencydigital clock source 80 is typically a crystal oscillator operating at1,092,267 hertz for an example of 14 bits of information in 15milliseconds of measurement time at a 60 Hertz frame rate. The digitalcounter 82 accumulates the oscillator pulses beginning with the stepfunction 74 of control voltage 56 which opens the plural sensor switchessubstantially simultaneously, and the counter 82 is zeroed at the end ofeach frame. This pulse count is digitally displayed to all sensors inthe array. In this embodiment, each sensor has a digital latch register86 which in this example is 14 bits and which mirrors the master counter82. Upon closure of switch contact 46 and 50 a switch latch or “switchdebouncer” 84 freezes the instantaneous counter value in the latchregister 86. As a result, each sensor digitally records the remote pulsecount or time of the corresponding switch closure. The recorded timesare read out at the end of the frame time as a stream of digital numbersby row-column rastering readout to form the signal output.

The digital output signal then goes to a lookup table where thenonlinearity of the measurement scale of FIG. 14 is modified totransform the signal from quasi-logarithmic to a linear or logarithmicfinal display, or other transform function as may be preferred.

The data stream then goes to a second and two-dimensional lookup tablewhere corrections are made for variation in the sensitivity ofindividual pixels. By virtue of the quasi-logarithmic response of thesensor, this second lookup table is a simple additive correction ratherthan the much more complicated multiplicative correction required byprior art linear bolometers.

The normalized and scaled digital stream is then exported for videodisplay. These prior-art signal conditioning lookup tables are not shownin FIG. 16.

Prior art bolometers used exotic materials and construction detailswhich led to low yield in manufacturing, and further high unit cost.Unlike the prior art, construction of a radiant energy imager accordingto the present invention comprises the steps of fabricating a waferusing a conventional foundry CMOS process, followed by superposition ofthe microcantilever structures by a conventional MEMS process. Bothprocesses are well understood in the art, and offer high yield and lowcost in production.

Although the radiant energy sensor has been here described in terms of asingle sensor, it should be understood and emphasized that such sensorsare primarily intended to be incorporated within arrays of sensorswhich, together, form a radiation imager. In the preferred embodiment,the individual sensors are arranged in rows and columns. Each of theplural individual sensors in the array represents a pixel within animage being produced. Using this array configuration results in theadvantage of increased resolution for imaging details of objects whichvary over a wide dynamic range of radiance.

It should be understood that various other micro-cantileverconfigurations may be used alternatively. It should be furtherunderstood that the methods for forming the micro-cantilever are asknown in the art and as described previously.

Although the radiation sensor and switch-time measuring circuitry havebeen described in conjunction with a single radiation sensor and system,alternative configurations and application will be obvious to thoseskilled in the art within the scope of the present invention such asapplications for a radiation imager consisting of a plurality of suchsensors, each coupled to timing circuitry and forming an array fromwhich a visible image may be produced.

In summary, the present invention provides new methods, systems andapparatus for an irradiance sensor including a deflectable conductivemicro-cantilever element which curls toward a second conductive elementaccording to the irradiance absorbed; switch contacts between theseelements are opened at the beginning of the measurement period byelectrostatic repulsion between the elements and closed prior to the endof the measurement period, the time between these switch events being amonotonic measure of the absorbed irradiance. The circuitry associatedwith each sensor records the value of a quantity monotonically relatedto said time and thus functions as a recording clock. In an embodiment,plural sensors in an array constitute an imaging focal plane array andthe stored clock times are read out to provide a digital data stream toexternal circuitry designed to normalize and calibrate the data, fromwhich an image is assembled, which image is provided to an externalvideo display.

The preceding description was provided to illustrate the principles ofthe invention. It will be appreciated that those skilled in the art willbe able to devise various arrangements which, although not explicitlydescribed or shown herein, embody the principles of the invention andare included within its spirit and scope. Furthermore, all examples andconditional language recited herein are principally intended expresslyto be only for pedagogical purposes and to aid the reader inunderstanding the principles of the invention and the conceptscontributed by the inventors to furthering the art, and are to beconstrued as being without limitation to such specifically recitedexamples and conditions.

While the invention has been described, disclosed, illustrated and shownin various terms of certain embodiments or modifications which it haspresumed in practice, the scope of the invention is not intended to be,nor should it be deemed to be, limited thereby and such othermodifications or embodiments as may be suggested by the teachings hereinare particularly reserved especially as they fall within the breadth andscope of the claims here appended.

1. A repulsive cantilever assembly comprising: a cantilever having aconductive surface adapted to conduct electrical charges, the cantileveranchored at a first end and suspended at a second end; a first electrodepositioned opposite to and spaced apart from the cantilever conductivesurface, the first electrode configured to receive electrical charges ofa first polarity, conduct electrical charges and be electrically coupledwith the cantilever surface; and a second electrode spaced apart fromthe first electrode and configured to receive electrical charges of asecond polarity, wherein the cantilever is repulsed from the firstelectrode when said electrical charges are applied.
 2. A cantilever asin claim 1 wherein the electrical charges are supplied from a voltagesource.
 3. A cantilever as in claim 1 wherein the cantilever, the firstelectrode and the second electrode surfaces are substantially parallelto each other.
 4. A cantilever as in claim 1 wherein the cantilever, thefirst electrode and the second electrode comprise parallel plates forincreasing electrostatic area.
 5. A cantilever as in claim 1 wherein thefirst and second electrodes are stationary.
 6. A cantilever as in claim1 further comprising an insulative support substrate.
 7. A cantilever asin claim 6 wherein the first electrode is disposed on the surface of thesupport substrate.
 8. A cantilever as in claim 6 wherein the secondelectrode is embedded in the support substrate.
 9. A cantilever as inclaim 6 wherein cantilever is anchored on the support substrate.
 10. Asensor for measuring an influence, comprising: a substrate; a firstelement coupled to the substrate at a first end of the first element, asecond end of the first element extending over the substrate to form agap; a first electrode positioned proximate to the gap and in electricalcommunication with the first element; and a second electrode positionedproximate to the first electrode, the first and second electrodesadapted to generate an electrostatic force responsive to a voltageapplied to the first and second electrodes, wherein the second end isconfigured to be displaced in response to the electrostatic force, thesecond end displaced by an influence that comprises at least one ofirradiation, heated air, temperature, acceleration, and mass. 11.(canceled)
 12. A sensor as in claim 10 wherein the first elementcomprises an absorber plate supported by a bi-material spring with thebi-material spring supported by an insulating member, and wherein thebi-material spring comprises materials having different coefficients ofthermal expansion.
 13. A sensor as in claim 10 further comprising acontact switch changing state when the cantilever is at a predeterminedposition, wherein the contact switch contacts the first element when thefirst element reaches the predetermined position to drain an effect ofthe influence on the first element.
 14. A sensor as in claim 10 whereinthe first and second electrodes are further adapted to receive oppositepolarity electrical charges from an electrical source, the electricalsource comprising a bias voltage in series with a periodic voltage. 15.A sensor as in claim 14 wherein the bias voltage counterbalancescharacteristic forces of the first element to provide a freely movingfirst element.
 16. A sensor as in claim 14 where the periodic voltagecycle is of a sawtooth form comprising a rapid increase from a restingvoltage followed by a gradual return to resting voltage.
 17. A sensor asin claim 10 further comprising: a contact switch changing state when thecantilever is at a predetermined position, wherein the influence isdetermined from states of the contact switch; and a measurement circuitto measure the time between changes of the switch states which are ameasure of the influence.
 18. An irradiance sensor comprising: a surfaceelectrode; a first switch terminal; a cantilever electrically connectedto the surface electrode, the cantilever having a first end including asecond switch terminal, the second switch terminal configured to contactthe first switch terminal at a predetermined position; and anencapsulated electrode wherein an electrostatic force is generated whena voltage is applied between the encapsulated electrode and the surfaceelectrode, wherein the position of the first end of the cantilever isresponsive to the electrostatic force.
 19. A sensor as in claim 18further comprising an insulative support substrate, wherein the surfaceelectrode and the first switch terminal are disposed on a surface of thesupport substrate, and wherein the encapsulated electrode is embeddedwithin the support substrate, the cantilever coupled to the supportsubstrate.
 20. A sensor as in claim 18 wherein the cantilever comprisesan absorber plate supported by a bi-material spring, wherein thebi-material spring is supported by an insulator leg anchored to asupport substrate.
 21. A sensor as in claim 20 wherein the absorberplate serves to convert irradiation of selected wavelengths to heat. 22.A sensor as in claim 20 wherein the absorber plate comprises a layer ofinsulator material between contiguous coatings of a conductive metal.23. A sensor as in claim 20 wherein the absorber plate is made ofgraphite.
 24. A sensor as in claim 20 wherein the absorber platecomprises a coating which absorbs at selected wavelengths.
 25. A sensoras in claim 24 wherein the coating has an electrical conductivity in therange from 1 to 10,000 ohm per meter.
 26. A sensor as in claim 24wherein the coating comprises metal black.
 27. A sensor as in claim 26wherein the metal black coating is mechanically strengthened by at leastone of diffusion bonding and intra-matrix adsorption of adhesive invapor form.
 28. A sensor as in claim 26 wherein said metal blackcomprises gold.
 29. A sensor as in claim 20 wherein the bi-materialspring comprises materials having different coefficients of thermalexpansion.
 30. A sensor as in claim 29 wherein the material having a lowcoefficient of thermal expansion is adjacent the surface electrode. 31.A sensor as in claim 29 wherein the material having a high coefficientof thermal expansion is selected from a group consisted of aluminum,zinc, tin and polymer.
 32. A sensor as in claim 31 wherein the materialhaving a low coefficient of thermal expansion is selected from a groupconsisted of silicon dioxide and silicon nitride.
 33. A sensor as inclaim 18 wherein the thermal time constant of the cantilever is greaterthan the time between switch opening and switch closure.
 34. A sensor asin claim 18 wherein the thermal time constant of the cantilever isgreater than the time of exposure during which data is gathered.
 35. Asensor as in claim 18 wherein the first switch terminal comprises athermally conductive material.
 36. A sensor as in claim 35 wherein thethermally conductive terminal removes accumulated heat from thecantilever when contacting the second switch terminal.
 37. A sensor asin claim 18 wherein the voltage source comprises a bias voltage inseries with a periodic voltage.
 38. A sensor as in claim 37 wherein thebias voltage counterbalances the bend of the cantilever due to substratetemperature.
 39. A sensor as in claim 37 wherein the bias voltage sourcecomprises a constant voltage source in the range of 0-1000V.
 40. Asensor as in claim 37 wherein the periodic voltage source comprises avariable voltage source is in the range of 0-50V peak to peak.
 41. Asensor as in claim 37 where the periodic voltage cycle is of a sawtoothform comprising a rapid increase from a resting voltage followed by agradual decline to a resting voltage.
 42. A sensor as in claim 41wherein the gradual decline is a linear decline.
 43. A sensor as inclaim 41 wherein the gradual decline is a nonlinear decline forcompensating for a non linearity of a sensor's response.
 44. A sensor asin claim 37 wherein each cycle of the periodic voltage is equal in timelength to a single video frame time.
 45. A sensor as in claim 44 whereineach cycle of the periodic voltage corresponds with one frame time of1/60 second.
 46. A sensor as in claim 44 wherein the thermal timeconstant of the cantilever is greater than the length of a single videoframe.
 47. A sensor as in claim 18 further comprising an electronicsensing circuit coupled to said switch contact and responsive to theclosure of said switch contact
 48. A sensor as in claim 47 wherein saidelectronic sensing circuit response is a measure of the periodic voltageupon first closure of the switch contact.
 49. A sensor as in claim 47wherein said electronic sensing circuit response provides a measure ofthe time between switch opening and the first subsequent closure of theswitch contact.
 50. A sensor as in claim 47 wherein said electronicsensing circuit comprises a clock circuit to measure the time intervalbetween switch opening and switch closure.
 51. A sensor as in claim 50where clock circuit comprises an oscillator, a counter and a registerlatch.
 52. An image sensor comprising a plurality of sensors as in claim18 for imaging a radiation pattern.
 53. A plurality of sensors eachaccording to claim 18 arranged in a regular array to form an imagingsensor, with a single electrical source common to all sensors to providethe electrostatic repulsion.
 54. An imaging sensor according to claim53, further comprising an oscillator and a pulse counter common to allsensors to provide a time signal to a register at each sensor, saidregister being locked upon closure of its sensor switch, to retain thetiming count.
 55. A system for recording an image of an irradiationpattern, comprising: a voltage source; and a plurality of sensors, eachsensor comprising, a cantilever anchored at a first end and forming agap at a second end, the position of the second end of the cantileverconfigured to change in response to irradiation exposure, a pair ofelectrodes, wherein a first electrode of the pair of electrodes iselectrically coupled to the cantilever, the voltage source configured toapply a voltage across the pair of electrodes, wherein the electrodesgenerate an electrostatic force configured to change the position of thesecond end of the cantilever, and a switch having a first terminal and asecond terminal, the first terminal coupled to the cantilever, whereinthe switch changes state when the position of the second end of thecantilever changes from a predetermined position; and a sensing circuitfor sensing state signals from the plurality of sensors.
 56. A system asin claim 55 further comprising a heater for elevating the temperature ofthe sensors to permit operation of the sensor array within the limits ofelectrostatic temperature compensation.
 57. A system as in claim 55further comprising a duplicate sensor shielded from irradiation toprovide a substrate temperature.
 58. A system as in claim 55 furthercomprising a video display for receiving the data stream for displayinga corresponding image on the video display.
 59. A system as in claim 55wherein the sensing circuit comprises a readout circuit for extractingthe responsive signals from the sensors in a sequence so as to form adata sequence representative of the irradiation image.
 60. A method formeasuring an influence, comprising: configuring a portion of acantilever to change position in a first direction in response to anexposure to an influence; applying an electrical voltage to a pair ofelectrodes to generate an electrostatic force on the cantilever, whereinthe electrostatic force is in a second direction which differs from thefirst direction; and detecting when the portion of the cantilever is ata predetermined position in response to influence exposure.
 61. A methodas in claim 60 wherein the influence heats the cantilever to bend thecantilever.
 62. A method as in claim 60 further including draining theeffect of the influence on the cantilever when the cantilever reachesthe predetermined position, wherein draining includes draining thethermal energy from the cantilever.
 63. A method as in claim 60 whereinapplying an electrical voltage comprises: applying a voltage step tobend the cantilever arm from the predetermined position; decreasing thevoltage steadily to adjust the bending response of the cantilever by theinfluence.
 64. A method as in claim 60 wherein applying an electricalvoltage comprises applying a steady bias voltage to adjust the pressureon the cantilever.
 65. A method as in claim 64 wherein applying anelectrical voltage further comprises applying a sawtooth waveformvoltage.
 66. A method as in claim 65 further comprising adjusting thesawtooth waveform to achieve a predetermined sensitivity response of thecantilever arm.
 67. A method as in claim 60 wherein detecting furthercomprises measuring a voltage across a switch when the cantileverreaches the predetermined position.
 68. A method as in claim 60 whereindetecting further comprises collecting the elapsed time between openingand closing time of the switch to determine the influence.
 69. A methodas in claim 60 wherein detecting further comprises counting cycles froman external oscillator, the sum of which cycles counted between switchopening and closing is representative of the irradiance.
 70. A method asin claim 60 further comprising correcting a signal with a look-up table.71. A method as in claim 70 wherein the look-up table compensates forvariations in sensor sensitivity.
 72. A method as in claim 70 whereinthe look-up table converts the signal to a selected mathematicalrepresentation of image irradiance.
 73. The sensor of claim 10, furthercomprising a contact switch changing state when the first element is ata predetermined position.
 74. The sensor of claim 73, the second end ofthe first element configured to move within the gap in response to aninfluence experienced by the first element, wherein the influence isdetermined from states of the contact switch.
 75. The sensor or claim73, wherein the second electrode is embedded within the substrate. 76.The sensor of claim 18, wherein the electrostatic force repulses thefirst end of the cantilever.
 77. The sensor of claim 18, wherein theposition of the first end of the cantilever is further responsive toirradiance received by the cantilever.
 78. The system of claim 55,wherein the second end of the cantilever is configured to be predictablymoved using the electrostatic force.
 79. The system of claim 55, whereinaccumulated heat on the cantilever is removed through thermal conductionwhen the first terminal and second terminal are in contact.
 80. Themethod of claim 60, wherein the second direction is opposite to thefirst direction.
 81. The method of claim 60, wherein the cantilever isconfigured to absorb energy in response to influence exposure, themethod further comprising releasing the absorbed energy when thecantilever reaches the predetermined position.